Learn 2 Conquer

 1.1MEANING AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 

            

 Jean Bodin (1530 – 1596) a French political philosopher  coined the term “Political Science”. Political science is a branch of social science. The study of Political science is of great significance and importance in the present day “Global village”. Political Science is the study of the state. According to Garner  Political science begins and ends with the state. It may be defined as the study of man in the process of governing himself. According to Catlin,  politics means either activities of  political life or the study of those activities, which are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government. According to R.N. Gilchrist,  political science deals with general problems of the state and government. The great Greek political philosopher, Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) was the first thinker to use the term ‘politics’. The term “Politics” is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means city – state. Aristotle (B.C. 384 - 322) Polis or city – state was a small independent self – contained political society. Greeks did not make any distinction between politics and society. These Greek city – states of ancient times provide an ideal point for the beginning of a systematic study of political science.

Unlike, the ancient Greeks, we live in a large territorial states today. Greek meaning of the state can be extended to the study of the modern state. In the words of the French schloar, Paul Janet, political science is that part of social science which treats the foundations of the state and principles of government. 

The term ‘scope’ refers  to the subject matter or the boundaries of political science. The international Political Science Association at its Paris conference in 1984 discussed, the scope of the subject political science and marked out the subject matter as follows : 

1.Political theory 

2.Political ideas 

1. Constitution 

2.National government 

3.Regional and local government. 

4.Public administration. 

5.Economic and social functions of government. 

6.Comparative political institutions.   

1.Political parties. 

2.Groups and associations 

3.Participation of the citizen in the government and administration. 

4.Public opinion. 

1.International polities. 

2.International organization and administration 

3.International law.

Broadly speaking, the scope of political science may be divided into three  parts: 1)Scope of political science concerning the  state. 

2)Scope of political science with reference to human rights. 

3)Scope of political science in relation to government. 

Present Form of the state 

Historical Form of the state 

Ideal Form of the state 

In political science, we study the present form of the state Its aims and objectives and the means adopted by the state to achieve its objectives.  This aspect of the study of political science has been termed by Gettell  as the analytical study of the state. The present form of the state is the result of its historical development. Political science makes a historical analysis of the origin of the state and the theories of the state. The study of political science has to predict the future of the state  that is how it ought to be. According to Gettell  political science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is and a politico – ethical discussion of what the state should  be. 

The citizens have their civil, political and economic rights. These rights have to be preserved and protected by the State for the welfare of its citizens. 

Stephen Leacock said that, political science deals with government. A state cannot exist without government. Government is the working agency of the state. The different forms of government, various organs of government,  political parties, local self - government, judiciary, and internationalism are  covered by the political science. 

Aristotle, the father of political science considered political Science as the master of all sciences. Writers like  Laski, Burke and Maitland used the title politics instead of political science. Some other Writers like Godwin, Vico, Hume, Bodin, Hobbes, Montesquieu used  the title political science Thomas Hobbes (A.D. 1588 - 1679) Professor Maitland once wrote, “ When I see a good set of examination questions headed by the words “Political Science”, I regret not the questions but the title. Buckle observed in the present state of knowledge, politics far from being a science is one of the most backward of all arts”. There is a great deal of controversy over the question whether political science is a science or art. Science means a body of systematized knowledge arranged on certain principles. Art is a systematic knowledge to the solution of problems of human life. Physical science like physics, chemistry etc., follow  the scientific method while studying physical phenomena. For example, law of gravity. If you throw a ball upwards, it will come down due to law of gravitation. Similarly, two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen constitute water. If you do it anywhere any number of times the result will be the same, correct and exact.

Social sciences like history, sociology, political science, economics also follow the scientific method while studying social phenomena. Laboratory tests are not possible in social sciences. The basic difference lies in the fact that physical sciences study about matter whereas social sciences study about human beings.Hence the results obtained in physical sciences are precise, perfect and exact at all times. That is not possible in social sciences. This does not mean that political science claim to be a science can be denied. It is true that political science cannot be an exact science,  since its laws and conclusions cannot be expressed in precise terms and it cannot predict political events accurately. Besides social and  political relationships are constantly changing and what may be true of  them today may not be true in the future. Hence political science can be called both a science and an art. 

Conflict and co-operation are the two faces of political science. As a matter of fact, they are two sides of the same coin. Conflicts are not desirable but unavoidable and inevitable in human society. Conflictsmay arise due to many factors like social, economic, cultural and psychological. Whatever may be the degree or stage of conflict, solution has to be found out to solve it. The state is the final authority in society. It finds solution in the form of integration. State enacts laws, rules and procedures for society. The state can also use force through police, the army and the prisons. But is should be used as a last resort. To be preciseforce should be used as the very, very last resort. Education plays a major role in the process of integration. The newspapers, the radio, the television and internet are important. Welfare of the people is the aim of every state. With the advancement of science and technology, a new set of conflicts are not ruled out.

It is the  responsibility of the state to solve the conflicts paving  way for the welfare of the people. And of course, there is no denying the fact that, that is the aim of the state. 

 There are two types of political theories: 

1. Normative or prescriptive 

2. Empirical or descriptive    

Normative or  prescriptive  theory is based on postulates, deals, assumptions or values. It concerns itself on what ought to be. It focuses the attention on: 

1.Good order of the society. 

2.Ends of the state

The works of Plato’s Republic, Rousseau’s Social Contract are the examples of normative type. To say that, Pakistan should not adopt presidential system of government is to make normative. This statement can be accepted or rejected but it cannot be proved or disproved. Empirical or descriptive is based on state structure, political  process etc, a system requiring knowledge of a subject by actual experience. Max Weber  in his book “Bureaucracy”. Graham Wallas  in his book “Human Nature in Politics” and Arthur Bentley  in his book “Process of Government” gave an empirical dimension to the study of politics. To say that one political party has more electoral support than the other is to make an empirical statement. This statement is based on facts and facts are verifiable. 

 Behaviouralist movement came into existence after the end of World War II (1939 – 45). The behaviouralists made significant contributions to political science during the period. Writers like Gabriel A.Almond, Robert A.Dahi and David Easton  are some of them. According to Robert A.Dahi  behavioralism is “a protest movement within political science associated with a number of political scientists mainly Americans” who shared “a strong sense of dissatisfaction with the achievements of conventional political science, particularly through historical, philosophical and the descriptive institutional approach” and a belief that additional  methods and approaches either existed or could be developed that would help political science with empirical propositions and theories of a systematic sort, tested by closer, more direct and move vigorously controlled observations of political events. 

Merits of Behavioural Methods: 

1. It may assist the student of political science to compare and contract institutions of one culture with those of another. 

2. Behaviouralism is dynamic in nature and can attempt to relate changes in changes in the social order as they occurred to changes in political orders. 

3. Models can be used in relation to a theory and hypothesis of how the world is likely to behave. 

4.  field investigations, survey of attitudes and testing of hypothesis may throw new lights upon the old political

Demerits: 

1.  The behavioural approach is possible for micro level studies only. Through   behavioural they cannot discuss questions  like “what is justice?” or ‘what is liberty?’ 

2.The ideas generated by behaviouralist are not new and they  just introduced only alternative terms in political science. 

3.By following inter-disciplinary approach, the content of politics has been considerably reduced. 

 In the late 1960’s the behavioural movement lost its original attraction and the momentum of the early years, and soon a reactionstarted which culminated in a new movement called post behaviouralism. The post-behaviouralists did not reject the scientific method of the behaviouralists. Their against behaviouralism  was that because it had ignored current social problems, it was relevant to contemporary social reality. Political science, they insisted, should be relevant to life and its problems. It should seed to solve the problem of life and thereby enhance human welfare. Post-behaviouralism emphasizes that in political research the substance is more important than the thechnique. It ismore important to be relevant and meaningful for present day urgent problems. David Easton  an authority on post behaviouralism impressed the need for ‘relevance and action’. Post behaviouralism in actionoriented and future oriented. 

Social science are those sciences, which discuss about the things connected with the affairs of individuals living in society, political science, economics, history, geography are some of the important social sciences. It is essentially connected and related to other social sciences. As a matter of fact, all social sciences are interrelated and interdependent. 

Political Science and History: 

There is closed and intimate relatioship between political science and history. The relatioship between political science and history is beautifully explained by John Seeley. “History without political science has no fruit and politicalscience without history has no root”. To quote the same author again, “Politics is vulgar when not liberalized by history and history fades into mere literature when it loses sight of its relation  to  politics”. According to Freeman, “History is past politics and politics is present history “. They are complementary to each other. 

Montesquieu and Bryce made use of historical marterials to study political science. Lord Bryce  claims that, political science stands midway between history and politics, between the past and the present. It has drawn its materials from the one; it has to apply them to the other. 

History deals with past events, movements revolutions, national struggles etc. and gives information about the origin and development of political institutions and thought. When various issues, concepts and terms, ideologies, are discussed in political science, their historicaldevelopment is also taken into consideration. 

Political Science and Economics: 

Political science and economics are very closely related. In the past, economics has been regarded as a branch of political science. Adam smith  the father of economics in his book “An Enquiry into the  Nature and Courses of Wealth of Nations” also considered economics as an important branch of political science. It was called political economy. Now the two social sciences namely political science and economics have their individuality and identification. 

Economics is a social science dealing with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of wealth in the society. All economic activity is carried on  within the state on conditions and stipulations laid down by the state. Political science and economics are concerned with such matters,  as formulation of five year plans, the socialistic pattern of society  economic  and welfare activities of government. The political conditions of a country are greatly affected by its economic conditions. Healthy economy depends on a strong, effective and efficient administration of a country. 

Political Science and Geography: 

Political science is also related to geography. Geo means earth and graphy means description and geography is the description of  the earth. Geography is the study of the earth’s surface, physical features, natural and political divisions, climatic conditions, population, etc. It  helps us to understand the impact and influence of geographical conditions of the political institutions of a country. 

Political geography is known as geopolitics, a new branch  of study in modern times. Montesquieu stressed the influence of physical environments on the forms of government and liberty of the people. As territory is an essential element of a state, geo political factors influence political environment. According to Rousseau , there is a link between the climatic conditions and form of government. Warm climates are conducive to despots, cold climates to barbarism and moderate climate to a good polity. 

Political Science and Sociology: 

Sociology is the root of all social sciences. Auguste Comte  is the father of sociology. Sociology is the study of ociety. Political science and sociology are inter-related political scientists and sociologists contribute mutually for the  benefit of  whole society. 

For example, the institution of marriage and related problems after that, namely divorce are within the domain of sociology. How  to  solve these problems in a harmonious way for better standard of life is within the competence of political science. What was once a sub-field of sociology has now takes the form of “political sociology” which is now a legitimate subfield of political science.