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Political Science Chapter 1 for BA
Chapter 1
FOUNDATIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE:
1.1MEANING AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Jean Bodin (1530 – 1596) a French political philosopher coined the term “Political Science”. Political science is a branch of social science. The study of Political science is of great significance and importance in the present day “Global village”. Political Science is the study of the state. According to Garner Political science begins and ends with the state. It may be defined as the study of man in the process of governing himself. According to Catlin, politics means either activities of political life or the study of those activities, which are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government. According to R.N. Gilchrist, political science deals with general problems of the state and government. The great Greek political philosopher, Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) was the first thinker to use the term ‘politics’. The term “Politics” is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means city – state. Aristotle (B.C. 384 - 322) Polis or city – state was a small independent self – contained political society. Greeks did not make any distinction between politics and society. These Greek city – states of ancient times provide an ideal point for the beginning of a systematic study of political science.
Unlike, the ancient Greeks, we live in a large territorial states today. Greek meaning of the state can be extended to the study of the modern state. In the words of the French schloar, Paul Janet, political science is that part of social science which treats the foundations of the state and principles of government.
Scope of political science :
The term ‘scope’ refers to the subject matter or the boundaries of political science. The international Political Science Association at its Paris conference in 1984 discussed, the scope of the subject political science and marked out the subject matter as follows :
I. Political Theory :
1.Political theory
2.Political ideas
II. Political Institutions :
1. Constitution
2.National government
3.Regional and local government.
4.Public administration.
5.Economic and social functions of government.
6.Comparative political institutions.
III. Political Parties :
1.Political parties.
2.Groups and associations
3.Participation of the citizen in the government and administration.
4.Public opinion.
IV. International Relations :
1.International polities.
2.International organization and administration
3.International law.
Broadly speaking, the scope of political science may be divided into three parts: 1)Scope of political science concerning the state.
2)Scope of political science with reference to human rights.
3)Scope of political science in relation to government.
1. Scope of political science concerning the state :
Present Form of the state
Historical Form of the state
Ideal Form of the state
In political science, we study the present form of the state Its aims and objectives and the means adopted by the state to achieve its objectives. This aspect of the study of political science has been termed by Gettell as the analytical study of the state. The present form of the state is the result of its historical development. Political science makes a historical analysis of the origin of the state and the theories of the state. The study of political science has to predict the future of the state that is how it ought to be. According to Gettell political science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is and a politico – ethical discussion of what the state should be.
2. Scope of political science with reference to human rights:
The citizens have their civil, political and economic rights. These rights have to be preserved and protected by the State for the welfare of its citizens.
3. Scope of political science in relation to government :
Stephen Leacock said that, political science deals with government. A state cannot exist without government. Government is the working agency of the state. The different forms of government, various organs of government, political parties, local self - government, judiciary, and internationalism are covered by the political science.
1.2 POLITICAL SCIENCE AS ART OR SCIENCE:
Aristotle, the father of political science considered political Science as the master of all sciences. Writers like Laski, Burke and Maitland used the title politics instead of political science. Some other Writers like Godwin, Vico, Hume, Bodin, Hobbes, Montesquieu used the title political science Thomas Hobbes (A.D. 1588 - 1679) Professor Maitland once wrote, “ When I see a good set of examination questions headed by the words “Political Science”, I regret not the questions but the title. Buckle observed in the present state of knowledge, politics far from being a science is one of the most backward of all arts”. There is a great deal of controversy over the question whether political science is a science or art. Science means a body of systematized knowledge arranged on certain principles. Art is a systematic knowledge to the solution of problems of human life. Physical science like physics, chemistry etc., follow the scientific method while studying physical phenomena. For example, law of gravity. If you throw a ball upwards, it will come down due to law of gravitation. Similarly, two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen constitute water. If you do it anywhere any number of times the result will be the same, correct and exact.
Social sciences like history, sociology, political science, economics also follow the scientific method while studying social phenomena. Laboratory tests are not possible in social sciences. The basic difference lies in the fact that physical sciences study about matter whereas social sciences study about human beings.Hence the results obtained in physical sciences are precise, perfect and exact at all times. That is not possible in social sciences. This does not mean that political science claim to be a science can be denied. It is true that political science cannot be an exact science, since its laws and conclusions cannot be expressed in precise terms and it cannot predict political events accurately. Besides social and political relationships are constantly changing and what may be true of them today may not be true in the future. Hence political science can be called both a science and an art.
1.3 THE TWO FACES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE:
Conflict and co-operation are the two faces of political science. As a matter of fact, they are two sides of the same coin. Conflicts are not desirable but unavoidable and inevitable in human society. Conflictsmay arise due to many factors like social, economic, cultural and psychological. Whatever may be the degree or stage of conflict, solution has to be found out to solve it. The state is the final authority in society. It finds solution in the form of integration. State enacts laws, rules and procedures for society. The state can also use force through police, the army and the prisons. But is should be used as a last resort. To be preciseforce should be used as the very, very last resort. Education plays a major role in the process of integration. The newspapers, the radio, the television and internet are important. Welfare of the people is the aim of every state. With the advancement of science and technology, a new set of conflicts are not ruled out.
It is the responsibility of the state to solve the conflicts paving way for the welfare of the people. And of course, there is no denying the fact that, that is the aim of the state.
1.4 NORMATIVE / EMPIRICAL STUDIES:
There are two types of political theories:
1. Normative or prescriptive
2. Empirical or descriptive
Normative or prescriptive theory is based on postulates, deals, assumptions or values. It concerns itself on what ought to be. It focuses the attention on:
1.Good order of the society.
2.Ends of the state
The works of Plato’s Republic, Rousseau’s Social Contract are the examples of normative type. To say that, Pakistan should not adopt presidential system of government is to make normative. This statement can be accepted or rejected but it cannot be proved or disproved. Empirical or descriptive is based on state structure, political process etc, a system requiring knowledge of a subject by actual experience. Max Weber in his book “Bureaucracy”. Graham Wallas in his book “Human Nature in Politics” and Arthur Bentley in his book “Process of Government” gave an empirical dimension to the study of politics. To say that one political party has more electoral support than the other is to make an empirical statement. This statement is based on facts and facts are verifiable.
1.5 BEHAVIOURALIST MOVEMENT:
Behaviouralist movement came into existence after the end of World War II (1939 – 45). The behaviouralists made significant contributions to political science during the period. Writers like Gabriel A.Almond, Robert A.Dahi and David Easton are some of them. According to Robert A.Dahi behavioralism is “a protest movement within political science associated with a number of political scientists mainly Americans” who shared “a strong sense of dissatisfaction with the achievements of conventional political science, particularly through historical, philosophical and the descriptive institutional approach” and a belief that additional methods and approaches either existed or could be developed that would help political science with empirical propositions and theories of a systematic sort, tested by closer, more direct and move vigorously controlled observations of political events.
Merits of Behavioural Methods:
1. It may assist the student of political science to compare and contract institutions of one culture with those of another.
2. Behaviouralism is dynamic in nature and can attempt to relate changes in changes in the social order as they occurred to changes in political orders.
3. Models can be used in relation to a theory and hypothesis of how the world is likely to behave.
4. field investigations, survey of attitudes and testing of hypothesis may throw new lights upon the old political
Demerits:
1. The behavioural approach is possible for micro level studies only. Through behavioural they cannot discuss questions like “what is justice?” or ‘what is liberty?’
2.The ideas generated by behaviouralist are not new and they just introduced only alternative terms in political science.
3.By following inter-disciplinary approach, the content of politics has been considerably reduced.
POST – BEHAVIOURALISM:
In the late 1960’s the behavioural movement lost its original attraction and the momentum of the early years, and soon a reactionstarted which culminated in a new movement called post behaviouralism. The post-behaviouralists did not reject the scientific method of the behaviouralists. Their against behaviouralism was that because it had ignored current social problems, it was relevant to contemporary social reality. Political science, they insisted, should be relevant to life and its problems. It should seed to solve the problem of life and thereby enhance human welfare. Post-behaviouralism emphasizes that in political research the substance is more important than the thechnique. It ismore important to be relevant and meaningful for present day urgent problems. David Easton an authority on post behaviouralism impressed the need for ‘relevance and action’. Post behaviouralism in actionoriented and future oriented.
1.6 POLITICAL SCIENCE AND OTHER SOCIAL AND HUMAN SCIENCES:
Social science are those sciences, which discuss about the things connected with the affairs of individuals living in society, political science, economics, history, geography are some of the important social sciences. It is essentially connected and related to other social sciences. As a matter of fact, all social sciences are interrelated and interdependent.
Political Science and History:
There is closed and intimate relatioship between political science and history. The relatioship between political science and history is beautifully explained by John Seeley. “History without political science has no fruit and politicalscience without history has no root”. To quote the same author again, “Politics is vulgar when not liberalized by history and history fades into mere literature when it loses sight of its relation to politics”. According to Freeman, “History is past politics and politics is present history “. They are complementary to each other.
Montesquieu and Bryce made use of historical marterials to study political science. Lord Bryce claims that, political science stands midway between history and politics, between the past and the present. It has drawn its materials from the one; it has to apply them to the other.
History deals with past events, movements revolutions, national struggles etc. and gives information about the origin and development of political institutions and thought. When various issues, concepts and terms, ideologies, are discussed in political science, their historicaldevelopment is also taken into consideration.
Political Science and Economics:
Political science and economics are very closely related. In the past, economics has been regarded as a branch of political science. Adam smith the father of economics in his book “An Enquiry into the Nature and Courses of Wealth of Nations” also considered economics as an important branch of political science. It was called political economy. Now the two social sciences namely political science and economics have their individuality and identification.
Economics is a social science dealing with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of wealth in the society. All economic activity is carried on within the state on conditions and stipulations laid down by the state. Political science and economics are concerned with such matters, as formulation of five year plans, the socialistic pattern of society economic and welfare activities of government. The political conditions of a country are greatly affected by its economic conditions. Healthy economy depends on a strong, effective and efficient administration of a country.
Political Science and Geography:
Political science is also related to geography. Geo means earth and graphy means description and geography is the description of the earth. Geography is the study of the earth’s surface, physical features, natural and political divisions, climatic conditions, population, etc. It helps us to understand the impact and influence of geographical conditions of the political institutions of a country.
Political geography is known as geopolitics, a new branch of study in modern times. Montesquieu stressed the influence of physical environments on the forms of government and liberty of the people. As territory is an essential element of a state, geo political factors influence political environment. According to Rousseau , there is a link between the climatic conditions and form of government. Warm climates are conducive to despots, cold climates to barbarism and moderate climate to a good polity.
Political Science and Sociology:
Sociology is the root of all social sciences. Auguste Comte is the father of sociology. Sociology is the study of ociety. Political science and sociology are inter-related political scientists and sociologists contribute mutually for the benefit of whole society.
For example, the institution of marriage and related problems after that, namely divorce are within the domain of sociology. How to solve these problems in a harmonious way for better standard of life is within the competence of political science. What was once a sub-field of sociology has now takes the form of “political sociology” which is now a legitimate subfield of political science.
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Political Science,
Political Science- Definition,Nature and Scope of Political Science
The Study of Politics
- ¨ Definitions, Nature and Scope
- ¨ Normative and Empirical Approaches
- ¨ Feminist Approach
Introduction:
Politics exists everywhere. It is all-pervading and as old as human beings. Politics prevails in every sphere of human life. Whether one likes or not virtually no one is completely beyond the reach of some kind of political system.
Political science is a social science and like its sister subjects it revolves around man and his social (Political) environment. Being one of the oldest social sciences its nature and scope of the study have undergone several changes over the centuries. Political Science first began with the Greeks. The term ‘Politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means ‘city-states’ (Polity meaning Government, politeia meaning Constitution) and each city in those days was an independent state, a principality in its own right. E.g. Athens, Sparta, Corinth etc.
Aristotle is regarded as “the father of Political science” on account of his far reaching and permanent contribution to the field of politics. He called politics the Master Science because politics determines the environment within which every person will organize his life. No one can escape from the parameters set by politics. In his famous book ‘Politics’ Aristotle wrote , “ Man is by nature a Political Animal and he who is by nature or by accident is without state is either above humanity or below it.” Politics is the control room of all human activities.
Definitions of Politics or Political Science:
The word politics has different interpretations. From Plato to Easton it has been interpreted in different ways. Definitions of politics vary according to the variety of activities that have been considered political from time to time. Though the study of politics existed in some form since the time of Aristotle, the discipline was indistinguishable from moral philosophy and the study of society in general until early 19th century. Its independence as a field of study was established only in the later part of 19th century.
Early Definitions or Traditional View of Politics:
According to the traditional political scientist from the early part of 20th century such as J W Garner, Henry Sidgwick, R G Gettel and others Politics deals mainly with study of state and government or related institutions.
R G Gettel defined politics as “the study of the state in the past, present and future, of political organization and political function, of political institutions and political theories.”
According to Laski “the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to organized states.”
According to Garner, “Political science begins and ends with state.”
According to Leacock, “Political science deals with government.”
Thus from above definitions it is clear that the traditional view of politics was narrow, static and limited and included only the study of state and government, its structure and organisation etc.
1) Power view
The dawn of the 20th century saw fresh ground being covered by political scientist such as Laswell, Powell, Merriam, Morgenthau, weber etc. A more realistic analysis of political activity is contained in the definitions of politics in terms of power.
Harold Laswell defining politics in empirical terms maintains that politics is the study of the shaping and sharing of power. The fundamental issue in politics according to him is who gets what, when and how?
Robert Dahl holds that, “politics involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
According to Shaw and Pierce politics is the struggle for power to make authoritative decisions for the whole society.
Definitions emphasizing power focused attention on the fact that functions are more important than forms or structures. Power is indeed a central idea of politics and examining this element takes political enquiry into the core of the matter.
2) Legitimacy of the government:
As the power view of politics was found to be defective and inadequate, attempts were made to modify it by an appeal to the legitimacy of the government. It was said that only legitimate power would become the basis for the acceptance of the government. David Easton assigned a moral function to the exercise of power by asking for the “authoritative allocation of values for the society.” This view also suggests that modern political analysis is concerned with political system. Demands are made on the system and they are processed and policy decisions are made. This has to be done under the authority of the government i.e. policies have to emanate from legitimate or rightful sources.
Another important element in the study of politics is controversy and conflict. Vermon von dyke observes, “Politics consists of struggle among actors pursuing conflicting desires on public issues.” Conflict is basic to politics. Therefore conflict resolution or reconciliation of antagonistic interest becomes essential in political studies.
4) Consensus & General Arrangements:
The study of politics also includes the element of consensus and general arrangements of society. Politics is necessitated because diversities in social environment cause conflicting demands on the common good. “If men were angels no government would be necessary.” Governments and political system act as mediator to generate consensus in the society.
5) Internationalism:
Another view is that politics is concerned with internationalism. The study of internationalism is necessary for world peace, and to have modern welfare state.
6) Behavioral approach:
Almond Powell and other modern American writers have studied political science by sociological, anthropological and psychological methods and criticised the traditional theory of political science on the grounds of parochialism and formalism. Their contention is that the political theorist in the past concentrated mainly on the state, government, institutions and their legal norms, rules, regulations or political ideas and ideologies. They did not concern themselves with the performance of institutions, their interaction and political behavior of man. This marked the beginning of Behavioural approach in politics and later also adopted a comparative studies of different political systems across continents.
Changing nature of Politics: Is Political science a Science or Art?
Whether politics can be considered a science has been a long standing controversy. Aristotle adopted a scientific approach to the study of the discipline. He separated the study of politics form ethics and law, examined and compared constitutions (158) and classified governments into meaningful categories. On the other hand James Bryce, Charles Beard and Harold Laski are of the opinion that politics is not a science. It is said that the nomenclature Political Science owes its origin to William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft.
Science is systematised body of knowledge about any phenomenon which is governed by its own laws. Science is based on collection of data, generalisations, accuracy and verification or experimentations. Let’s try to test political science on these grounds.
Political Science is not a Science:
1) Lacks Precise and Uniform Definitions:
A Science has a set of its own terms and their precise and standard definitions. Political science lacks precise definitions, terminologies and methods. There is no general agreement among political scientist regarding these. Methods and principles of political science are not universally acceptable and applicable. E.g. terms like freedom, democracy, nationalism do not have uniform definitions. They can be and have been defined and interpreted in different ways.
2) Lacks Investigation and generalistions:
Political science also lacks scientific method of investigations, observations and generalisations. It is possible to obtain exact results in science which is not the case with political science. E.g. Democracy is regarded as the best form of government by many but in reality it is not a success in countries where there are ignorant and incompetent masses.
3) Lacks Experimentations:
Another difficulty in political science is that it not possible to have laboratory experiments in political science. Political researcher has to deal with human beings. The habits, sentiments, moods, and temperament of people differ from place to place and from time to time. They cannot be controlled as well under any circumstance. E.g. electoral behavior of voter is determined by various factors such as caste, class, religion etc. No government can claim that its people will react in a particular way to a policy or programme announced.
4) Lacks Objectivity:
While there is objectivity in the study of physical sciences, it is lacking in studying problems related to state and government. A completely impartial, indifferent, unbiased attitude may not be possible to analyse political problems and questions. A political scientist has to deal with human beings in relation to sate, society and government and in such relations the element of subjectivity is most conspicuous. Views of political thinkers are bound to be prejudiced or coloured on account of racial, religious, linguistic or nationalistic factors.
5) Lacks Predictability:
Is is nearly impossible for a political thinker to predict the future course of events. In fact events take course quite contrary to the expectations of the observer. This happens because politics studies human behaviour and social constructs which are vulnerable to change. Constantly changing socio-economic and political situations restrict a political observer form making predictions.
Thus it was rightly observed by Burke that, “ there is no science of politics any more than there is science of aesthetics- for the line of politics are not the lines of mathematics. They are matter incapable of exact definitions.”
Political Science is a Science:
1) If by the term science we mean a systematized body of knowledge political science can certainly be called as a science. Dr. Finer rightly says that, “we can be prophets of probable if not seers of certain” political science has been able develop a systematised body of knowledge on broad terms like state, government etc. after due observation, comparison and some sort of experimentation.
2) It is possible to conduct some experiments through which political scientist can benefit. It is well known that Aristotle based his ‘Politics’ on his study of the working of 158 constitutions. Likewise, Lord Bryce compared the working of democracy in various countries and then came to conclusions with regard to relative merits and demerits of democracy. B N Rau constitutional advisor to the government of India also made a comparative study of various constitutions and presented a report to the constituent assembly.
3) It is true that there is no consensus among experts regarding the method, principles and conclusions of political science. But political science is a dynamic study of living subject-matter. It deals with man and his institutions. As man is dynamic, the same is true of the institutions created by him. The nature of man changes with the changing conditions.
The view of Lord Bryce is that political science is a science, although it is undeveloped and incomplete. Prof. R N Gilchrist believes that general laws can be deduced from given material and those are useful in the actual problems of the government.
Scope of Political Science
There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the scope of political science. There is lack of precision in the definitions and meanings of political science and that creates confusion regarding the precise boundaries of the subject.
According to Willoughby, political science has to deal with three great topics: State, Government and Law. The view of Prof. Goodnow is that political science divided itself into three distinct parts: the expression of the state will, the content of the state will as expressed and the execution of the state will. At the UNESCO conference held in September 1948, distinguished political scientists from the various parts of the world marked out the subject-matter of political science which included 1) Political theory 2) Political Institutions 3) Political Dynamiics and 4) International Relations.
As the importance of political science is increasing day by day , its scope is also increasing and becoming wider. Thus in general scope of political science includes following things:
1) Study of State and Government:
Political science is the science of state and government. It deals with the nature and formation of the state and tries to understand various forms and functions of the government. Scholars like Bluntschli, Garris and others believe that the scope of political science is restricted to the study of the state alone. Scholars like Leacock attach more importance to the study of government that to the state.
Political science makes a thorough investigation into the origin of the state. It also deals with the elements of the state, sovereignty and law, ends and functions of state, the rights and obligations of the individual, political institutions, forms of government, elections, political parties, public opinion, local bodies and international bodies etc. it studies state as it is, as it has been and as it ought to be.
2) Study of Political Theory:
Political theory is a major branch of political science. On the basis of the political ideas or thoughts of political thinkers, political theory formulates definitions of the concepts like democracy, liberty, equality, ground of political obligation etc. It deals with some rudimentary concepts of political science. Speculations of political philosophers and other ideologies are put together in one volume which is given the title political theory.
3) Study of Political Institutions:
The study of political institutions includes a study of constitutions and comparative governments. It deals with the nature of different political institutions, including government, explains their merits and demerits, their structure and working and arrives at different conclusions on comparative basis. The study of public administration and local governments may also be included under this heading.
4) Study of Political Dynamics:
The study of political dynamics has become important in the twentieth century. It means the current forces at work in government and politics. It covers a wide range of and includes political parties, public opinion, pressure groups, lobbies etc. A scientific study of the working of these political dynamics helps us to explain the political behavior of individuals and groups. The study in this field is often done in collaboration with other social sciences like sociology, anthropology and psychology etc. Human nature is not static but dynamic. Hence the study of political dynamics becomes extremely essential to understand changing concepts.
5) Study of adjustment of individual with the state:
It is interesting to study the nature of relationship between individual and state and to examine how man adjusts within the society. Man is the root of politics. The state guarantees certain rights and liberties to its citizens and also imposes certain reasonable restrictions on them. Maximum state intervention can lead to loss of liberty and complete absence of the state intervention can lead to a state of anarchy (Chaos). It is a difficult problem to adjust and reconcile the authority of the state with the individual liberty.
6) Study of international relations and international law:
It includes wide range of topics like diplomacy, international politics, international law and organisations like UN. With technological advancement and progress in human knowledge the world has come closed and become like one family. Human society today is viewed from a world perspective. Therefore the study of international relations today has become an independent discipline.
Disagreement is at the root of any political process on account of conflicting interests, contradictory view and opinions, socio-economic inequalities and scarce resource available to resolve these issues. Hence politics is all about making choices and arriving at policy decisions suitable to the broad demands and needs of people in the society. Elections are said to be the most effective means of resolving conflicts in any society. Apart from it Legislature, Judiciary, Pressure groups also are some other means to resolve political conflicts at public level.
Thus political science over period of time has covered wide range of subjects under its scope. Beginning from traditional study based on state, government, law and institutions to modern study focusing on process, political dynamics, political socialization, political cultures, political development and informal structures like pressure groups etc. It is not that traditional boundaries in the study of political science have been obliterated they merely have been extended to give sharpness and depth hitherto unknown.
Approaches to the study of Political Science
Introduction:
Political Theory emerged out of the observation and the analysis of politics in different places and situations. The need for laws, procedures and authority was felt universally and they were created and applied with some degree of success, consistencies were observed, alternatives were thought and theories emerged. There was always a gap between theory and practice, desirable and the actual, the ideal and the possible. Various approaches have emerged to the study of political science such as:
1) Normative Approach
2) Empirical- Behavioural Approach
3) Feminist Approach
4) Post-Behavioural
5) Plural and Neo-Plural Approach
6) Marxist Approach
7) Green Approach etc.
Normative Approach:
The oldest approach to the study of politics initiated by Greek philosophers like Plato & Aristotle is known as the normative approach. The normative approach is rooted in theory and oriented towards ideals and norms. The philosophers set the standards through intuition and logical deduction. They tried to arrive at the ideals that would establish the ‘good life’ which was seen as the goal of political activity. Norms such as Liberty, Equality and Justice were seen as essential conditions of good life and their dimensions and ways of realization were prescribed by the philosophers. The study of politics became the study of norms that will establish the best order of things in an organized community. Hence this approach is known as the normative approach. It is also called as the philosophical approach, Legal approach, Formal Approach, historical approach and institutional approach.
Significant Features of Normative Approach:
1) Value-loaded Approach:
Normative approach is ethically oriented; it deals with the good, the right and the just. The ideals cannot but be formulated in ethical terms. It was loaded with values of what is desirable and what is to be detested. Normative approach suggests certain norms, values or ideals or the ethical dimension of politics which ought to be realized. It aims to attain what is desirable or ideal. It is loaded with some universal values like Liberty, Equality, Justice, Fraternity, the right or the good. There for E H Carr considers this approach as Utopian (Unreal).
2) Philosophical Deductive Method:
Traditional political scientist adopted a philosophical deductive method for political enquiry. It implies drawing conclusions from some general, universal propositions which are supposed to be true. Thinkers like Plato and Aristotle began their political enquiry with some self-evident, universal assumptions from which they deduced certain conclusions. Their attempt is hence described as ‘abstract theorising’, or ‘a priori thinking’ or ‘philosophizing rather than practicing’.
3) Prescriptive Approach:
Normative approach is also called as a prescriptive approach than a descriptive approach. Normative study is an evaluative study of principles and actions. Concepts and theories were formulated as the parameters for evolving institutions and instruments of governing. It gives less importance to description of the reality and more to prescription of values and ideals.
Important thinkers who contributed to the normative approach:
Plato in his classic work ‘republic’ talks about an ideal state which is governed by a ‘Philosopher King’. According to him a philosopher king is a person possessing unique and unparalleled virtues who only can guarantee highest and best form of justice to the people.
Apart from these Greek philosophers some modern thinkers also have contributed to the fund of normative thought. John Lockepropounded the theory of Natural Rights and government by consent as the solution for tyranny of rulers. He developed the social contract theory where he suggests that basis of any government has to be the consent and good of people.
The French philosopher Rousseau conceived of ‘General Will’ as the ideal will as it ought to be, to which all individuals must conform to realize their own freedom. He was attempting reconciliation between individual liberty and state authority.
The German idealist Hegel deified the state; according to him state was ‘March of God on Earth’. He prescribed that individual self is to be sacrificed for the better self: the state.
1) It ignores to contemplate on ‘what is’ in its inclination to study ‘what ought’ to be.
2) It is a value-laden approach which sometimes moves away from reality and turns out to be utopia. It is based on some preferences, prejudices and personal judgments.
3) It is a subjective area of study.
4) It lacks inter-disciplinary approach.
Empirical Approach
Introduction:
Right down to the end of the nineteenth century politics was largely, if not, exclusively seen as a normative discipline mostly forming part of moral philosophy. The beginning of empiricism began early in the 20th century. But until the post-world war II period it was not an acknowledged approach to intellectual enquiry in politics. The change from the normative to empirical approach was a turn from ideals to facts, from value-loaded prescription to value neutral description and from institutional to behavioral study.
Arthur F Bentley, sociologist at the Chicago University published a book ‘The Process of Government’ in 1908. He explained the group basis of all political behavior. In the same year Graham Wallas published Human Nature in Politics, bringing out the psychological dimensions of political actions.
New Aspects of Politics (1925) by Charles Merriam (Intellectual God-father of Behavioural Approach), the Science and Methods of Politics (1927) by George E Catlin, Quantitative Methods in Politics (1928) by Stuart Rice and Psychology and Politics (1930) by Harold Laswell were the most notable publications of this era that gave rise to the empirical dimension in political studies.
Hallmarks of Empirical Approach:
1) Scientific and Empirical Tools:
In the post-world war II period the newly emerged states copied democratic system form their colonial masters which were later found to be inappropriate to suit in their socio-economic and cultural milieu. The empiricists developed appropriate tools for the purpose of political enquiry such as political culture, criteria of modernization, and indicators for development and categories for analysis. Therefore empirical scientist introduced scientific techniques such as observation, quantification, measurements, calculations, surveys, hypothesis testing and use of aggregate data into political studies and thus aimed to give operational meaning to political concepts.
2) Value Free Approach:
Empirical approach divorces itself from values and focuses on facts. It is a value neutral and a scientific approach to study and frees politics from moral, ethical and philosophical values of life.
3) Focus on Behavioural Aspect:
In place of the legal institutional study hitherto followed, the emphasis in empirical approach now was on political behavior. The focus is on man, not ideals. Politics was concerned with now how man exercised authority, persuaded and coerced, expressed his demands shared and compromised with his fellows. Politics was more concerned with the motivations, prejudices, actions and policies, with voting behavior, activism, apathy and indifference.
4) Inter-disciplinary approach:
Empirical approach also clarified the link between politics and other disciplines. Behavior in politics cannot be studied in isolation, because people behave in particular ways because of attitudes and dispositions developed through group life. Therefore empirical approach emphasized on the close link between political science and other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics.
5) Emphasis on wide range of areas:
Thinkers like David Easton developed system model (Input- Conversion- Output- Feedback) to study political phenomenon. On the other hand Arthur Bentley and David Truman focused on the significance of groups and their influence on the working of the state. This led to the study of pressure groups as a separate topic in politics. Empirical approach widened the scope of political studies by including Power analysis, Decision Making Analysis and Role Analysis (Almond’s Structural-functional Approach) into its stride. It also aimed at recommending policy on the basis of the study made.
Criticism:
1) Empiricists believe that an empirical science of politics based on facts alone is possible. But the normative theorists believe that politics cannot be and should not be purely scientific. It cannot be totally value-neutral. Because, a) values, interests and curiosity of the investigator influence his choices of topics. b) The prescientific knowledge not requiring any proofs has to be accepted. c) Biases of the investigator cannot be easily kept out.
2) Empiricist has no criteria for relevance. In striving for neutrality and objectivity they have gone in for a new complicated ridiculous jargon. In an attempt to eschew values they reject all ground for evaluation and treat all values as equal.
3) Study of politics should have a purpose behind it. It should enable us to act rightly, to choose the best, to make decisions about how best to live with fellowmen. This aspect is completely ignored by the empirical approach.
Feminist Approach
Introduction:
Feminism is a social theory which advocates equal rights and social status of women. It is often used for the ‘Empowerment of Women’, championing the cause of women’s rights and privileges and gender equality. Feminists hold as stated by Catherine Mackinnon that “Women have been unjustly unequal to men because of the social meaning of their bodies.” Feminist thinkers ruthlessly criticize the established theories of state on the grounds that they ignore the subjugation of women, and ignore gender differences in structures of political power at all levels.
Feminism as a political force became popular throughout the western world, especially in USA and UK in the form of demand for political rights (Voting Rights) of women. It was a struggle against unjustified supremacy of male over women in the human society.
Feminist activists campaign for women's rights – such as property, and voting rights, also promoting bodily integrity, autonomy and reproductive rights for women. Feminist campaigns have changed societies, particularly in the West, by achieving women's suffrage, gender neutrality, equal pay for women, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Feminists have worked to protect women and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment, and sexual assault. They have also advocated for workplace rights, including maternity leave, and against forms of discrimination against women. Feminism is mainly focused on women's issues, but because feminism seeks gender equality, some feminists argue that men's liberation is a necessary part of feminism, and that men are also harmed by sexism and gender roles.
Various brands/types of Feminist Approach:
Liberal Approach:
This approach is universally recognized as the most reasonable, fair, just and effective approach. It is deeply rooted in the philosophy of liberalism that highlights the capital significance of certain political values such as Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, political rights of women in representative democracy and certain fundamental rights of women. Liberal feminism is a form of feminism that argues that equality for women can be achieved through legal means and social reform. Liberal feminism leans towards an equality or sameness argument with men. Liberal feminism conceives of politics in individualistic terms and looks to reform present practices in society, rather than advocating for a wholesale revolutionary change. Feminist writers associated with this tradition include early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and second-wave feminist Betty Friedan. Liberal feminists are often seen among other types of feminists as conservative and overwhelmingly white and middle class.
Marxist Approach:
This approach understands gender oppression and atrocities of men over women in the context of historically evolved socio-eco-political order
Socialist feminism
Socialist feminism focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life. It argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. It broadens Marxist feminism’s argument that capitalism is the source of all women’s oppression. It incorporates radical feminism's theory of the role of gender and the patriarchy. Socialist feminism confronts the common root of sexism, racism and classism: the determination of a life of oppression or privilege based on accidents of birth or circumstances. Socialist feminism is an inclusive way of creating social change.
Cultural feminism:
Cultural feminism believes that a female nature or female essence is essential to society. It opines that there are fundamental personality and psychological differences between men and women, and that women's differences are not only unique, but superior. This theory of feminism takes note of the biological differences between men and women - such as menstruation and childbirth and extrapolates from this the idea of an inherent "women's culture." For example, the belief that "women are kinder and gentler than men," prompts cultural feminists call for an infusion of women's culture into the male-dominated world, which would presumably result in less violence and fewer wars. Cultural feminism seeks to improve the relationship between the sexes and often cultures at large by celebrating women's special qualities, ways, and experiences, often believing that the "woman's way" is the better way, or that the culture discussed is overly masculine and requires balance from feminine perspectives.
Radical feminism:
Radical feminism is a branch of feminism (1960’s and 70’s) that views women's oppression (which radical feminists refer to as "patriarchy") as a basic system of power upon which human relationships in society are arranged. It seeks to challenge this arrangement by rejecting standard gender roles and male oppression. The term radical in radical feminism (from Latin) is used as an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the root or going to the root. Radical feminists locate the root cause of women's oppression in patriarchal gender relations, as opposed to legal systems (liberal feminism) or class conflict (like socialist or Marxist feminism).
Eco-feminism:
Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which unites environmentalism and feminism. Eco-feminists argue that a relationship exists between the oppression of women and the degradation of nature. Eco-feminists are concerned with connections between sexism and the domination of nature. They are also concerned with racism and other characteristics of social inequality. Some current work emphasizes that the capitalist and patriarchal system is based on triple domination of the "Southern people" (those people who live in the Third World, the majority of which are south of the First World), women, and nature. This is sometimes referred to as global north and south.
Three waves of Feminism:
First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. By the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage, though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights as well.
Women's suffrage was achieved in Britain's Australasian colonies at the close of the 19th century, with the self-governing colonies of New Zealand and South Australia granting women the right to vote in 1893 and 1895 respectively. It was followed by Australia permitting women to stand for parliamentary office and granting women the right to vote.
In Britain the Suffragettes and the Suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting the right to vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over twenty-one. In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God. In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states.
In the early 1990s in the USA, third-wave feminism began as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which, they argue, over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for women, and tend to use a post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality.
The term post-feminism is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s. While not being "anti-feminist", post-feminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas. Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity.
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